The impact of karst caves on military operations against the ISIS terrorist organization in Iraq (A study in applied geomorphology)

Abstract

This study focuses on one of the principal landforms exploited by ISIS during the conflict, namely the karst caves within the Qara Chogh Mountain Range in Makhmour District, southeast of Nineveh Governorate. The research is divided into two main sections. The first examines the processes of formation and development of these caves, highlighting the natural factors and geomorphological processes responsible for their origin and evolution. Particular attention is given to the soluble nature of the mountain’s lithology, which consists predominantly of karstic rocks—gypsum, limestone, and marl. These rocks are characterized by abundant joints and fractures, both at the surface and internally, allowing water infiltration that intensifies dissolution processes within the rock mass. This, in turn, leads to the widening of cave openings, passages, chambers, and collapse features. The second section analyzes the strengths and weaknesses associated with the exploitation of these caves and sinkholes by ISIS fighters.